Conversion of Waste to Energy

Conversion of Waste to Energy This section of the report focuses on waste to energy which is one of the most popular methods used to manage municipal solid waste around the world. Through waste to energy, trash has become a useful material because we are able to convert it to heat. The combustion of trash at a waste to energy facility produce ash, heat and flue gas. From the ash, metals are recovered and recycled. The flue gas is cleaned then it is released into the atmosphere through the chimney. The heat produced is used to generate electricity that powers the plant and nearby buildings. A waste to energy plant in the community helps to increase recycling rate which is beneficial for the city. There are more advantages to waste to energy than disadvantages, therefore it is essential that the city utilizes waste to energy has a way of managing municipal solid waste. 4.1.1. Introduction The management of municipal solid waste (MSW) in New York City has changed over the past decade from ocean and street dumping, to unregulated incineration, to current and export landfilling practices (Sylvan, 2011). The NYC Department of Sanitation, which is in charge of managing NYC waste collaborates with the Department of Parks and Recreation, the Sims Multi Recycling Recovery Facility, and GreeNYC to manage the citys waste through recycling, waste reduction, and composting and organic waste diversion (Cohen et al., 2015). In 2006, to efficiently manage the citys waste, the city Council approved the Comprehensive Solid Waste Management Plan (SWMP) which was created under the administrator of former Mayor Bloomberg (Cohen et al., 2015). The purpose of this plan was to establish a dependable, economical, and sustainable system for managing the citys waste (Cohen et al., 2015). This plan was eventually integrated into the sustainability planning under the PlaNYC, New York Citys compr ehensive sustainability plan in 2011 (Cohen et al., 2015). Under the new plan, in 2012, Former Mayor Bloomberg announced that the city would solicit plans to build a waste to energy facility near or within New York City (Rizzo et al., 2012). Waste to energy (WTE) technology is a process where trash is converted to heat/electricity. The most common waste to energy technology use around the world is mass burn, where trash is combusted to produce energy (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). However, the plan to build a WTE facility was eventually archived due to misconceptions surrounding WTE (Rizzo et al., 2012). 4.1.1.1 Background on the Problem Incinerators are not new to New York City. In the 20th century, there were thirty-two municipal and 17,000 apartment house refuse incinerator in the city (Walsh et al., 2001). In 1935, New York City was forced to stop ocean dumping, which was the waste disposal method for the city at that time, after a federal lawsuit was filed by New Jersey coastal cities (Cohen et al., 2015). This led the city to rely on incinerators and landfill to dispose of its waste (Cohen et al., 2015). However, in 1952, citys officials reported that apartment house refuse incinerators were responsible for 30% of the citys air pollution (Walsh, 2002). The report on air pollution caused by incinerators in the 1950s led to the limits on incinerator usage based on environmental grounds (Walsh, 2002). In 1970, after the Federal Clean Air act was enacted, the city was forced to shut down incinerators plant that did not meet the emissions guidelines (WastedNYC, 2015). The emission guidelines led to the closure of th e citys four oldest municipal incinerators by 1971, and by mid- 1970s thousands of residential incinerators were closed down (Walsh, 2002). In 1989, City Council committee passes a bill to ban incinerators in the city in the next four years (WastedNYC, 2015; Dunlap, 1989). This bill led to the decline of both residential and municipal incinerators, and by 1994 there were no more incinerator plants in New York City (Walsh, 2002; Rizzo et al., 2012). 4.1.1.2. Purpose of the Paper The burning of garbage and WTE are related because they both involve the combustion of trash. However, WTE is not just about burning trash but it is used to produce energy. The purpose of this paper is to outline how WTE plants work as well as the benefit the city stands to gain if it builds its own WTE facility. The city currently sends approximately 10% of its MSW to WTE plants in Hempstead, Long Island and Essex County, New Jersey (Cohen 2015, Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). If the city were to build its owns plant, it would save money from not spending on the transportation of waste and the use of other states landfills or WTE facilities. WTE has the ability to improve New York Citys current waste disposal practices (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). 4.1.2. Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator Process 4.1.2.1. How Incineration Works Figure 4.1.1: Schematic Diagram of the MSW incineration process (Lam et al., 2010). The incineration process of MSW is separated into three main parts: combustion, energy recovery and air pollution control (Lam et al., 2010). The crane in the machine (upper left, Fig.4.1.1) is used to feed solid waste into the furnace of the machine continually for combustion (Lam et al., 2010). The combustion of the waste in the furnace is enhanced by following the three Ts guideline, which are temperature, turbulence and time (Lam et al., 2010). High temperature increases burnout of the waste, while increasing turbulence reveals more waste surface and also increases burnout. (Lam et al., 2010). A longer resident time for the flue gas and waste also increases burnout (Lam et al., 2010). The temperature for incineration should be at least 850 oC with a residence time of 2 minutes (Lam et al., 2010). Air supply must be sufficient during the process to ensure complete combustion of waste and to inhibit the formation of carbon monoxide and dioxins (Lam et al., 2010). For the energy recovery process of the system, heat is generated from the waste and it is used to produce steam in the boiler (Lam et al., 2010). The steam is then used to drives the turbine to generate electricity (Lam et al., 2010). Air pollution was a major problem for old incinerators in the 20th century. However, modern incinerators are equipped with advanced pollution control systems which are designed to reduce pollution and ensure that the system is in compliance with environmental standards (Lam et al., 2010). To neutralize acidic gases such as hydrogen chloride and sulfur oxides, fine atomized slurry or lime powder is spray into the hot exhaust gas using a dry/wet scrubber (Lam et al., 2010). Also in the system, an activated carbon column is used to adsorb the heavy metals and organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the exhaust gas (Lam et al., 2010). The bag filter install in the system acts to filter and remove dust particles and fine particulates from the combustion (Lam et al., 2016). 4.1.2.2. The Product of Incineration of Waste After the combustion of the waste three products are produced, the products are flue gas, heat and ash (Lam et al., 2016). 4.1.2.2.1. Flue gas The flue gas produced from the combustion contains air pollutant (Zaman, 2010) (See table 4.1.3). Therefore, before the flue gas is release through the chimney, the filtering system makes sure the gas is clean to be released into the atmosphere (Zaman, 2010). 4.1.2.2.2. Heat The heat produced is used to generate electricity. The facilities use the electricity generated to operate the plant and sell the excess energy (Chambers, 2016; Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). At most facilities, for every ton of waste combusted, 550 to 650 Kilowatt/hour (KWh) of electricity is generated for sale (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). This is the way that WTE facilities are able to earn more income for the plant (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). 4.1.2.2.3. Ash There are two types of ash produced from the combustion, bottom ash (BA) and fly ash (FA) (Lam et al., 2016). The ash is 90 percent smaller than the original volume of the waste combusted (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). From the ash, WTE facilities are able to extract recyclable ferrous and non-ferrous metals (Chambers, 2016; Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Then the ashes are landfilled (Chambers, 2016). Before the ashes are landfilled, the facilities test the ashes to make sure that the ashes are not hazardous to the environment (Chambers, 2016). However, in some Asian and European countries that uses WTE, the ashes are not landfilled but rather utilized for other purposes such as cement and concrete production, road pavement, glass ceramics and ceramic production, adsorbent for dyes and agriculture (Lam et al., 2010; Pà ©rez-Villarejo et al., 2012). Application of MSW ashes Type Application Composition % Country BA Aggregate in concrete up to 50% France BA Aggregate in concrete replace up to 15% of cement Slovenia BA Road base Spain BA Adsorbent for dyes India BA Concrete Italy Mixed Ash Cement clinker up to 50% Portugal Mixed Ash Cement clinker 44% Japan Mixed Ash Cement clinker 15% Taiwan Mixed Ash Aggregate in concrete Spain FA Concrete 50% France FA Eco cement 50% Japan FA Ceramic tile China FA Glass ceramic Korea FA Blended cement up to 45% UK Table 4.1.1: The uses of MSW Ash in different countries. The BA represents Bottom Ash, the FA represents Fly Ash and the Mixed Ash represents the mixture of both BA and FA (Modified after Lam et al., 2010). Table 4.1.2: Research projects on MSW ash as road construction materials in the U.S. BA represents Bottom Ash and combined ash represents both Bottom Ash and Fly Ash (Modified after An et al., 2014). WTE facilities in the United States(U.S.) such as Covanta have been lobbying to recycle the ash instead of landfilling it, but these attempts have been unsuccessful so far (Chambers, 2016). The facilities have been lobbying for both federal and state regulation that would allow the usage of ash in the country (Chambers, 2016). Several studies conducted in the U.S. has proved that ash can be used in the U.S. as part of road construction (An et al., 2014) (see table 4.1.2). Despite the research showing that ash is usable in the U.S. no regulation has been passed to allow the usage of ash (An et al., 2014). Recycling of ash would be beneficiary because it would help eliminate landfills. Therefore, it is essential that these facilities continue to lobby for the recycling of ash. 4.1.3. Misconception about Waste to Energy Opposition to waste to energy plant in the city is rooted in two misconceptions (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). One of the misconceptions is that a waste to energy plant would displace recycling programs in the city (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). This has been proven to be false based on places that use waste to energy as part of their waste management program (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). High reliance on WTE is in fact correlated with high recycling rate (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). For example, in Austria where WTE facilities are used, 70 percent of its MSW is either recycled or composed while the remaining 30 percent is sent to WTE plants (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Meanwhile, in the U.S., studies have shown that states that do not rely heavily on WTE to manage their waste have a recycling rate below 20 percent while states that rely heavily on WTE has recycling rates above 20 percent. (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). For example, Connecticut, which is one of the leading states in reliance on WTE, sends 63 percent of its waste to WTE plants and recycle d 26 percent of its waste (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). As of 2015, the recycling rate for the city was 16%, which is lower than the recycling rate for Connecticut (Szendro, 2015). This demonstrates that having a WTE plant in the city would not displace recycling but rather help us recycle better. The other misconception about WTE is that it causes air pollution which would affect the health of the resident that would who live around the plant (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). In the 20th century there was a problem with incineration due to the fact that it causes air pollution. However, modern incinerators are equipped with systems that reduce the amount of pollutants released from the plant (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Also tight rule and regulations have led to the reduction of pollutant from WTE plants (Chambers, 2016). Under the federal Clean Air Act, WTE facilities must abide by the Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) rules, which apply to eight different air pollutants (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Every five years, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) updates the MACT, which result in the update of pollution control in WTE facilities to meet the new EPA limits (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). In 2012, the New York Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) examined eight air pollutants at the states municipal waste combustion plants and found that most pollutant had declined by 30 to 60 percent from 1996 to 2010 (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). *Toxic equivalent (sum of substance amounts multiplied by toxicity equivalency). Table 4.1.3. Emission from US WTE facilities Pre- versus Post MACT (Modified after EPA, 2016). Table 4.1.4. Average emission of 87 US WTE facilities (Lumber et al., 2006 as citied in Psomopoulos et al., 2009). WTE facilities in the US emit pollutants that are below that of the EPA Standard (Chambers, 2016, Psomopoulos et al., 2009) (see table 4.1.4). Numerous studies have shown that modern combustion plants pose no significant health risks (Citizen Budget commission., 2012). For example, a study in Germany, found near new WTE facilities the dioxin levels are only 1 to 2 percent of the level considered harmful to human health (Citizen Budget Commission., 2012). Another example, in Montgomery County WTE facility a health risk assessment found that even in the worst case scenario a nearby farmer has a one in three million chance of increase health risk from exposure to the facility(Budget Citizen Commission., 2012). This shows that WTE plants have no effect on human health and the idea that WTE plants in the city would affect the health of New Yorkers is false. 4.1.4. Benefit of Waste to Energy 4.1.4.1. Energy production and reduction in Greenhouse gases At WTE plants, combustion of 1 metric ton of MSW generates approximately 600 kWh of electricity thus preventing the mining of 0.25 ton of U.S. coal or importing one barrel of oil for electricity (Psomopolous et al., 2009). This lead to the displacement of energy produced at local facilities (Citizen Budget Commission., 2013). For example, the EPA calculated that for a ton of wasted combusted in the Middle Atlantic region prevent about 0.56 metric tons of emission from local utilities (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). The EPA also estimated that for every ton of waste combusted, 0.04 tons of carbon dioxide from metal recovery is saved (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). WTE is the only alternative to landfilling of non-recyclable wastes, where the decomposing waste releases methane into the atmosphere (Psomopoulos et al., 2009). Which means that the city practice of hauling waste to other states landfill is increasing the citys carbon footprint. Disposing of the citys garbage to local WTE would decrease the citys carbon foot print (Citizen Budget Commission., 2012). 4.1.4.2. Source of Renewable Energy Figure 4.1.2. Sources of U.S. electricity generation in 2015 (Modified after EIA, 2016). The combustible materials in MSW consist of 82% biomass (paper, food, yard wastes etc.), and 18% petroleum chemical wastes (Psomopolous et al., 2009). Therefore, MSW is considered a renewable source of energy and it is included by the U.S. Department of Energy in the biomass fuel category of renewable energy source (Psomopolous et al., 2009). In 2015, renewable energy generated 13% of the energy produced in the U.S. (EIA, 2016). The electricity produced by WTE facilities in the U.S. is 3% of the renewable energy generated in 2015, which is less than the amount of electricity generated by other renewable energy sources such as wind (35% of renewable energy generated), and solar (5% of renewable energy generated) (EIA, 2016) (see Figure 4.1.2). However, compare to wind and solar energy, the electricity generated by waste is consistent because the availability of these resources is stable, while the amount of electricity generated by the wind and solar energy depend on daily and seasona l weather, and this make the sources unreliable. (EIA, 2016). This shows that even though waste is not generating a lot of energy, it is a stable energy resource. 4.1.4.3. Recycling Having a WTE plant in the city would increase the citys recycling rate. WTE plant in the city would burn only non-recyclable material, which means that New Yorkers have the responsibility of sorting out their garbage before it is taken to the WTE plant (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). 4.1.4.4. Free Amenities The people who live near the WTE plant might be entitled to free amenities. For example, the Toshima Incinerator plant in Tokyo has a swimming pool and an affordable fitness center located within the plant (Harden, 2008). These amenities are accessible to the people who live in community where the plant is located (Harden, 2008). Another example, is the Hiroshima Naka Citys Incinerator plant in Japan, which is also known as the museum of garbage (Harden, 2008). The end of one of Hiroshimas main boulevards, overlooks the citys harbor, but the building has entirely blocked residents access to the water(Bernstein,2004). Therefore, the architect of the building decided to continue the boulevard, in form of a raised, glass-enclosed walkway (Bernstein, 2004). Beginning where the pavement ends, a 400-foot walkway slips was put through the building, ending in a new waterfront park. Residents can walk through the slip to get access to the waterfront park (Bernstein, 2004). The beautiful archi tecture of the plant has made it a tourist attraction center in Hiroshima (Bernstein, 2004). This proves that WTE plants can be multifunctional. If the city decides to build its own WTE plants it can make it attractive to the community by including free amenities. 4.1.5. Economic Analysis In 2012, the average price of sending our waste to distant landfill was $95 per ton and it was estimated that the price would increase to $140 per ton in 2016 (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Meanwhile sending our waste to WTE facilities in Newark, New Jersey, and Hempstead, Long Island cost the city $66 and $77 per ton, respectively (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). The prices for sending our waste to distant landfill and WTE facilities is expected to increase in the coming years (Citizen Budget Commission, 2016). In comparison, the projected tipping fees of new plants are much lower than sending our waste out of the city (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). The New York City Independent Budget Office (IBO) estimated that the tipping fee at a new WTE plant that process 900,000 tons of waste per year would cost about $108 per ton in 2019, which is cheaper than the $140 per ton in 2016 for landfill (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Therefore, it would be beneficiary for the city to build its own plants. A full detail on economic analysis regarding WTE can be found in section 4.4 of this report. 4.1.6. Recommendation The use of a WTE plant located in the city or near the city offers both economic and environmental benefits compared to sending our waste out of the City (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Different factors are involved in estimating the economic benefits from the use of citys own WTE facility (citizen Budget Commission, 2012). The Key factors for the estimation are the future price of transporting waste to landfills, and the time it would take to plan, design and construct a plant (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Therefore, the cost of WTE would be compared to the amount the City would be paying to export its waste in 2022 (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). It is estimated that in 2022 the City would be paying $170 per ton to export to landfill (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). It would cost the City $750 million to finance a 3,000-ton per day WTE plant and capital funding, cost of operations and net of electricity sales for the plant would be approximate $109 million in 2022 (Citizen Budget Commission, 2016). It is assumed that the plant would be able to process 985, 500 tons of waste annually at a cost of $111 per ton if it operates all year round with 90 percent availability, (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). This would save the City $59 for every ton sent to the new plant instead of being transported to landfill (Citizen Budget Commission,2016). Using this estimate, taxpayers would save approximately $119 million if the city diverts two million tons from landfill to WTE plant in 2022 (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). This would lead to a reduction in the cost for disposing MSW in the City from $526 million to $408 million, a 23 percent drop in 2022 (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). The diversion of two million tons of waste from landfills to WTE woul d not only save the city money but also reduce greenhouse gas emission (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). Greenhouse gas emission due to this diversion is expected to decrease by 35 percent, which is equivalent to the reduction of carbon dioxide from 679,000 to 439,000 metric tons (Citizen Budget Commission, 2012). A Full detail on recommendations for the city regarding WTE can be found in section 4.4. of this report 4.1.7. Conclusion The use of WTE facilities has proven to be one of the best ways of managing MSW. WTE helps lower greenhouse gases and provides energy and material recovery. WTE also help reduce our reliance on fossil fuels for electricity, which leads to the reduction of greenhouse gas. WTE would also help increase the recycling rate of the city. Building WTE plant within NYC might be a problem due to the misconceptions surrounding WTE facilities. When people hear WTE, they think back to the old incinerators that were used in the 20th century in NYC. Therefore, it is essential for New York City to develop programs that would educate New Yorkers about the benefit of having WTE in the city and the differences between modern incinerators and the incinerators from 20th century. WTE has more benefits for the city than any effect it might have on the environment. References An, J., Kim, J., Golestani, B., Tasneem, K. M., Al Muhit, B. A., Nam, B. H., Behzadan, A. H. (2014). Evaluating the use of waste-to-energy bottom ash as road construction materials. University of Central Florida: Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering. Accessed: December 8, 2016: http://www.fdot.gov/research/completed_proj/summary_smo/fdot-bdk78-977-20-rpt.pdf Bernstein, F.A. (2004). Beauty in Garbage: Naka Incinerator Plant by Yoshio Taniguchi. Arch News Now. Accessed November 26. 2016: http://www.archnewsnow.com/features/Feature152.htm Chambers, T (2016). Interviewed by me. Facility manager of Covanta Huntington LP. Kings Park, NY. Citizens Budget Commission (2012). Taxes In, Garbage Out: The Need for Better Solid Waste Disposal Policies in New York City. Citizens Budget Commission New York. Accessed October 6, 2016: http://www.cbcny.org/sites/default/files/REPORT_SolidWaste_053312012.pdf Cohen, C., Martinez, H., and Schroder, A. (2015). Waste Management Practices in New York City, Hong Kong and Beijing. Columbia University. Accessed October 5, 2016: http://www.columbia.edu/~sc32/documents/ALEP%20Waste%20Managent%20FINAL.pdf Dunlap, D.W. (1989). Panel Votes Bill to Ban Incinerators. New York Times. Accessed November 28, 2016: http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/23/nyregion/panel-votes-bill-to-ban-incinerators.html EIA (2016). Energy in Brief: How much U.S. electricity is generated from renewable energy. Energy Information Administration. Accessed December 6, 2016: https://www.eia.gov/energy_in_brief/article/renewable_electricity.cfm EPA (2016). Energy Recovery from Waste: Air Emissions from MSW Combustion Facilities. Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed December 8, 2016: https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/web/html/airem.html Harden, B. (2008). Japan Stanches Stench of Mass Incinerators. Washington Post. Accessed November 28, 2016: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2008/11/17/AR2008111702968.html Lam, C. H., Ip, A. W., Barford, J. P., and McKay, G. (2010). Use of incineration MSW ash: a review. Sustainability, 2(7), 1943-1968. Pà ©rez-Villarejo, L., Eliche-Quesada, D., Iglesias-Godino, F. J., Martà ­nez-Garcà ­a, C., Corpas-Iglesias, F. A. (2012). Recycling of ash from biomass incinerator in clay matrix to produce ceramic bricks. Journal of environmental management, 95, S349-S354. Psomopoulos, C. S., Bourka, A., Themelis, N. J. (2009). Waste-to-energy: A review of the status and benefits in USA. Waste management, 29(5), 1718-1724. Rizzo, C., Plum, M.K. (2012). Waste-to -Energy Facilities in New York City: Challenges and Opportunities. Accessed October 2, 2016: http://www.clm.com/publication.cfm?ID=370 Sylvan, D. (2011). Municipal Solid Waste in New York City: An Economic and Environmental Analysis of Disposal Options. New York League of Conservation Voters Education Fund (NYLCVEF). Accessed October 6, 2016: http://nylcvef.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Solid-Waste-Background-Paper.pdf Szendro, B. (2015). New York City Makes Small Improvement in Recycling Rate: Despite improvements, Department of Sanitation falls short of its goal. New York League of Conservation Voters (NYLCV). Accessed November 15, 2016: http://nylcv.org/news/new-york-city-makes-small-improvement-in-recycling-rates Walsh, D. C., Chillrud, S. N., Simpson, H. J., Bopp, R. F. (2001). Refuse incinerator particulate emissions and combustion residues for New York City during the 20th century. Environmental science technology, 35(12), 2441-2447 Walsh, D. C. (2002). Peer Reviewed: The Evolution of Refuse Incineration. Environmental science technology, 36(15), 316A-322A. WastedNYC (2015). History of Incineration in New York City. WastedNYC. Accessed November 28, 2016: https://wastednyc.wordpress.com/local-incineration/incinerators-in-inwood/

The Berlin Blockade

For many historians, the Berlin Blockade effectively started the Cold War era. This is because it happened to be the first major issue which took place between the United States and her allies, on one hand, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), on the other hand, after which years of tension between the two camps ensued (Byrnes). Essentially, The Berlin Blockade took place when the USSR cut off all access to Berlin in an attempt to force the United States, Britain, and France to the negotiating table for the purpose of discussing the future as well as the division of Germany (Wilde).Historical Background When the Second World War ended in 1945, the victorious allied forces which consisted of the United States, Great Britain, France, and the USSR occupied Germany and divided the country into four zones and its capital (Berlin) into four sectors. Berlin, however, was located well inside the zone which was occupied by the Soviets. In other words, before the three other occ upiers could gain access to their Berlin sectors, they had to pass through the Soviet-occupied zone.Under their arrangement, although the country was already divided into four zones, it would still be considered as one economic entity to be controlled by the â€Å"Allied Control Council (ACC)† (Russian History Encyclopedia). Based in Berlin, the ACC was also known as the Allied Control Authority or the Alliierter Kontrollrat in German. It was essentially a â€Å"military occupation governing body of Germany† composed of the representatives of the United States, Great Britain, and the USSR. A later addition was France whose representative was granted with the power to vote but did not have any duties.The ACC was formally constituted on August 30, 1945. Its initial members were General Dwight Eisenhower of the United States, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery of Great Britain, Marshal Georgy Zhukov of the USSR, and General Jean Joseph-Marie Gabriel Lattre de Tassigny of Fr ance (Spiritus-Temporis. com). Unfortunately, the relations between the USSR and the three other occupiers of Germany did not last that long because their self-appointed task of administering the occupied Germany under the provisions of the ACC agreement did not go as envisioned.For one, the Soviets insisted on collecting huge reparations from its controlled eastern zone while the United States, Great Britain, and France, instead of demanding for reparations, wanted to revitalize the economy of their occupied zones in order to improve the living conditions of the residents (BBC Bitesize). Their disagreement was sparked by the January 1, 1947 decision of the British and the Americans to merge their zones and form the Bizone. Then the two countries spent the rest of 1947 and the early part of 1948 in the preparation of a currency reform that would ultimately introduce the Deutschmark.This currency reform was only the first step towards the establishment of a separate West German state . This move was opposed by the Russians because, according to them, it showed that the Americans and the British were no longer interested in taking part in the â€Å"four-power control of Germany. † The Russians further argued that the American and the British move would ultimately result to the death of the ACC (Spiritus-Temporis. com). By January 1948, the Soviets were already starting to severely criticize the intents and methods which the Americans and the British were employing in dealing with the economic problems of West Germany.Their disagreements remained unresolved until finally, in March of the same year, the Soviet delegation to the ACC staged a walkout. That Soviet act effectively dissolved the council because no further meetings had been conducted after their walkout (Russian History Encyclopedia). In spite of their disagreements, all four victorious countries were wary of the rebirth of a unified Germany. They all agreed that allowing Germany to regain its eco nomic and military strength would be a very risky proposition because the country might again represent a threat to world peace.However, they differed in their methods and intentions regarding the future of the country. First, the USSR wanted to convert the eastern territory into a communist state. Then it feared that if the zones controlled by the United States, Great Britain, and France would be totally integrated into the capitalist West, its control over its own Russian zone would be threatened, considering that the three Berlin sectors controlled by the three occupiers were located deep inside the Soviet-occupied zone.Stalin, in particular, who was known to have been consumed by paranoia, suspected that the western occupied sector in Berlin would first attempt to alienate the eastern sector from Russian influence and later serve as a staging point of a destabilization campaign against the Soviet Union itself, including the entire Eastern European communist bloc. For this reason alone, Stalin could not allow the emergence of a unified and rejuvenated West Germany inside the Russian zone. The other three occupiers, on the other hand, were bent on working together towards their common objective of rejuvenating their occupied territories.Their intention was to unify their three zones into a capitalist West Germany and integrate the same into their economic and defense organizations. Their purpose was to exercise complete control over West Germany while providing all the necessary assistance it needed in order to become a self supporting state (Wilde). In all indications, the disagreement over the Berlin question was already the start of the Cold War era. Both the western bloc and the Soviet Union were already considering their positions in the new world political order.So that when the Soviet delegation walked out of the ACC meeting, the United States and Great Britain became really convinced of the urgency of the establishment of a West German state. It coul d not be denied that they, themselves, did not want to give the Soviet Union the opportunity to consolidate its hold over all of Europe. For this purpose, a â€Å"Six Power Conference† was convened. Delegates from the United States, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium sat down and discussed the issue.

Renaissance Art By Leonardo Da Vinci - 888 Words

When we talk Renaissance art, we’re talking about a period of art that has a plentiful amount of innovation and creation within the time period. Its artists are innovative, highly devoted to the work of art their working on, and above all else committed to the recreation of a different style of art following the Middle Ages. Having to decide on a piece of art from the Renaissance period to write about is tougher than one would think. There are so many great artist and so many great pieces of art to choose from, for example you have Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo not to mention all the other greats from that period. On the other hand, in terms of art work you have the Mona Lisa which is heavily cherished throughout the world, the painting of the Sistine Chapel also cherished, and The Last Supper which is probably the most reproduced piece today that’s seen in multiple locations. The piece of art that strikes me not only emotionally, but gracefully is The La st Supper by Leonardo da Vinci. I chose The Last Supper because when I see the painting it reminds me of my religious values, from my child hood until now, I’ve seen a reproduction of it in every church I’ve been in and to this day when I look at the painting it brings back emotions. This painting reflects the values and characteristics of the Renaissance art in many ways, the background of Leonardo da Vinci, and a brief description of the work are crucial to the creation of the work and how its reflectsShow MoreRelatedLeonardo Da Vinci, the Epitome of the Italian Renaissance Essay792 Words   |  4 PagesItalian Renaissance. This renowned city was famous for supplying some of the best artists in the world and for creating the some of the world’s most treasured art. 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As demonstratedRead MoreAnalysis of Da Vincis Work as Being Reflective and Definitive of the Renaissance Period948 Words   |  4 PagesLeonardo Da Vinci and the Renaissance Period Objective The objective of this work examines the how Leonardo Da Vincis work is reflective and definitive of the Renaissance period and as well, describes some of Da Vincis art. This work will discuss the use of line, form, color, texture, and materials as found within one of his works and will state reasons this time period was chosen to examine in this work and why it is found to be appealing. Introduction Leonardo Da Vince was born April 15,Read MoreLeonardo Da Vinci : The Most Famous For His Art1448 Words   |  6 Pages3/29/16 Leonardo Da Vinci When hearing the name Leonardo da Vinci, what comes to mind? For many people it will be his artwork. This is because of all of the accomplishments da Vinci has, he is most famous for his art. 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Born on April 15, 1452, near Florence, Italy, one would not have guessed that he was destined for a life of greatness. He was the illegitimate child of an up-and-coming notary and a peasant girl, and he spent most of his childhood with his doting father (â€Å"Da Vinci - The RenaissanceRead MoreThe Renaissance Painting : Leonardo Da Vinci And Leonardo Da Vinci971 Words   |  4 Pagesstated in her book â€Å"The Annotated Mona Lisa† (32). During the Renaissance period, artists discovered new techniques, that gave paintings and sculptures more character. It seems, the paintings that were created during this time, have multiple layers that give the paintings more meaning and makes the painting livelier. An artist before the Renaissance period used tempera paint on a wood panel. 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When you think of specific time periods the art work of that period expresses the overall emotions of the people, and we ca n learn a lot about a time period by studying the art of the time. The time period that most expresses is the Renaissance. The Renaissance is known for the paintings, sculptures and most decorative art from the European period history

What can the examination of religious texts tell us about...

â€Å"Religious text-Definition- writing that is venerated for the worship of a deity† (Soanes, 2005). During the early nineteenth century it was the writer Max Muller that said for the study of religion the religious text should be a scholar’s primary source and focus of their studies. But is this correct? If religious texts are the only evidence that scholars use to study religion can an accurate picture and understanding of religion be gained? But is Max Muller Correct in his assumption? As a result of this way of thinking many scholars of the twentieth century have tended to study the religious texts of a religion as a primary source for their information. Along with Max Muller, The French philosopher Jaques Derrida also gives a†¦show more content†¦Religious texts either have a narrative or expository character. There is a great variety of religious and semi religious text for example hymns, prayers, chants, myths, and stories about gods heroes epics sacred laws and they all vary in authority and degree of sacredness. Within a religion the texts are usually collected into standard works of faith or canons and they are determined by general agreement or official religious bodies at which point they are fixed and are then regarded as the authority of that religion. Ninian Smart covers the study of religious texts within his model, the seven dimensions of religion for the study of religion. The particular dimension that can be specially linked to the study of religious texts would be the narrative or mythic dimension, which Smart defines as the story side of religion. Smart also makes the point that the handing down of stories whether they are historical mysterious future telling or heroic is typical of all religions or faiths. â€Å"These stories often called myths. The term may be a bit misleading, for in the modern study of religion there is no implication that a myth is false.† (Smart, 1998) The stories that religious texts are based on are usually based on history or not as the case may be. The stories concerning creation are obviously before history and are usually concerning the subject of how death and suffering came into being.Show MoreRelatedSimilarities And Differences Between Jesus And The Quran And Hadith3011 Words   |   13 Pagesdiscussed in both texts with varied stressed importance and purposes. With both traditions established in their respective religions, it is interesting to engage the concept that these pictures of Jesus could not be mutually exclusive. Examination of the Christology and miracles of Jesus in the Quran and Hadith allows contemporary Christian readers to view Jesus through a broader, historical lens. In â€Å"Images of Jesus Christ in Islam,† Oddbjorn Leirvik warns the reader that one can easily read theRead MoreThe Is The Static Procedure Of A.a Essay2106 Words   |  9 Pagesthe length of treatment, and the typical flow of session. This analysis will also examine research findings to determine the efficacy of the A.A. Twelve-Step program. In addition, further exploration concerning the lack of research; criticisms of religious connotation, sexism, and the complexities of addiction will demonstrate whether or not the A.A. program is in need of further development. The Efficacy of Alcoholics Anonymous A.A. (Alcoholics Anonymous), the beginning of the Twelve-StepRead MoreReligion Information Paper : Buddhism3761 Words   |  16 Pagessecond Buddha by Tibetan and East Asian Mahayana such major traditions of Buddhism, Nagarjuna is know to be sharp criticisms of Brahminical and Buddhists famous philosophy, theory of knowledge, and long approaches to practice. 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Our education of these various cultures and languages has provided us with open minds, and awarenessRead More Tibetan Medicine Essay4800 Words   |  20 Pagesand medical practice. Without looking at Tibetan medicine in depth, the Westerner could easily dismiss Tibetan medicine as superstitious and unscientific; however, Tibetan Medicine is often very successful at treating illness, and Tibetan physicians can often cure the root of the problem, rather than merely performing a quick fix to a localized part of the body as in the West. Tibetan doctors do not recommend simply popping a pill. Instead, they see illness as a manifestation of the body’s imbalanceRead MoreTheological Essay : Theological Of Theology4931 Words   |  20 Pagesfollowers to worship God in spirit and in truth, later adding, you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free. But what sort of God are we to worship and how do we know we are worshiping in spirit and in truth? If the truth will set us free, then it seems quite reasonable to want to determine what truth, specifically, will set us free. This is where theology can help us a great deal. Far from being an area of study reserved only for academics or the clergy, theology is important to every ChristianRead More Friar Lawrence in William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet Essay2603 Words   |  11 PagesRoman Church. On the contrary: he does everything in his dramatic power to show his friars and nuns, their lives and customs, in an unequivocally favorable light. (267) I feel that these conclusions about the character of Friar Lawrence are not so completely true. His character needs deeper examination in spite of the conventional ideas that have been passed from one critic to another throughout the years. Lawrences highly questionable actions in the drama need be looked at in regards to the positionRead MoreThe Jewish Roots of Christian Liturgy2710 Words   |  11 Pagesmembers of the new growing community were mainly Jews. They all shared the Jewish belief, the Sacred Scripture that Christians later started to call the Old Testament (OT), and were not aware of founding a new religion. A closer examination of Jewish worship will let us understand how it influenced the new Christian worship. We will have a closer look at places of worship, liturgical sources and customs which were common at that time. A last task will be to ask whether there are any significant Jewish